In Mecca, this message was couched in a powerful, eschatological language. When, however, the Prophet and a small band of his followers migrated to Medina in 622 AD, the message was expressed in normative moral and religious precepts necessary for the regulation of a socio- political and religious community. These norms were to provide the primary source of Muslim sacred law, the shari'a. By the time the Prophet died in 10 AH/632 AD, all the fundamentals Islam and its rites of worship were instituted. In one of the last verses of the Qur'an to be revealed, God says: I have perfected your religion for you; I have completed my favour towards you, and have accepted Islam as a religion for you (5: 3).
The Qur'an was revealed over a period of twenty-two years during Muhammad's prophetic career, first for twelve years in Mecca as a warner and preacher, then the remaining ten in Medina as a warner, preacher, prophet, and statesman. Thus we can see how the Qur'an is intimately related to the life of an actual society. Yet the Qur'an is also the transcendent Word of God, preserved from eternity in the well-guarded tablet (85: 21-2). It is at once a book of guidance sent down by God through the angel Gabriel, who actually taught it to Muhammad, and a numinous power sent down upon your (Muhammad's) heart (26: 194). Two modes of revelation are described by tradition. The first is the direct communication by the angel to the Prophet who then dictated the verses or suras to scribes as he did not know how to read or write. The second mode is a sound which the Prophet heard in his ears, while in a trancelike state, a sound like the ringing of a bell. 'This,' the Prophet said, 'was the hardest for me to bear.' [15] This is the Qur'an in its primordial essence, unfettered by human sounds and letters. It is the Qur'an as it is 'in the Mother of the Book,' the archetypal source of revelation.
The Qur'an is, for Muslims, the literal and timeless divine Word which entered our time. It became a book which Muslims write down, memorize, recite, and live by. The Qur'an is therefore analogous to Christ in Christianity, who is the eternal Logos that was made flesh and dwelt among us (John 1: 14). Yet with this similarity, there is an essential difference. Christ is God's self-revelation or disclosure through incarnation. Hence, the Word was with God and the Word was God (John 1: 1). The Qur'an, on the other hand, is the revelation of God's will and purpose for humanity. Although the Qur'an shares in divine transcendence, God remains the wholly other, absolutely transcendent lord over his entire creation. This crucial difference has, as we shall see, set the two communities of faith far apart, thus making any meaningful dialogue between them a hard challenge to the principles of love and tolerance which are basic to the faith of both communities.
The analogy of the Qur'an with Christ may be carried a step further into the history of Muslims and Christians. The christological controversies which so intensely engaged the Fathers of the early Church were paralleled in early Muslim history by theological controversies regarding the createdness or eternity of the Qur'an. In both cases, the issue was the relationship of the revelation to the revealer, and hence the fear of compromising the unity and transcendence of God. Furthermore, as the Church has through the ages been occupied with the humanity of Christ, so have Muslims been occupied with the question of earthliness, or humanity, of the Qur'an. In my view, neither community has been able to recognize the full implication of the humanity of the revelation even though in both cases the man Jesus and the earthly Qur'an have imposed themselves so powerfully on our history and theology.
For Muslims, this is clear from the fact that the Qur'an followed the course of their formative history with an amazing intimacy. It dealt with the community's hopes and failures; it consoled the Prophet and his people and reproached them. Of even greater significance has been the fact that many of its verses were revealed in answer to specific problems or questions of individual Muslims. Thus the occasions or reasons (asbab) of the revelation (nuzul) of the Qur'an has become an important branch of the sciences of the Qur'an.
Having considered the Islamic view of revelation as it relates to the Qur'an, we shall now consider more specifically the Qur'anic view of previous revelation. The Qur'an asserts that to every nation or community God sent an apostle to convey to them the message of his lord in their own tongue. Thus what has been said regarding the Qur'an applies to all scriptures. They were all with God, preserved in a celestial archetype which the Qur'an calls umm al-kitab (Mother of the Book). The truth they contain is, moreover, one and the same: to have faith in God alone and not associate any other thing or being with Him, to worship God, and to do good works. Differences, when they exist, are simply due to the variety in human culture and historical circumstances. Each messenger had to let the message entrusted to him by God speak the truth as it relates to the condition of his people. It may be further argued that inasmuch as all the major revelations are meant for humanity in the various stages of its progress, revelation must also be progressive so as to speak meaningfully to the human condition at every stage of its history. Thus details relating to laws of sanction and prohibition in one revelation could be changed or abrogated by a subsequent one. Jesus thus claims in the Qur'an, 'I have come to make lawful for you (the Jews) some of the things that were unlawful' (3: 50). This process, however, stopped with the Qur'an. Thereafter men are to understand and apply the precepts of this final revelation in their lives. Henceforth God's guidance will be through inspiration and not revelation.
The Qur'an deals only with the Torah of Moses and the Gospel of Jesus as specific instances of revelation. Christians and Jews are called 'people of the book,' an appelation which applies indirectly to Muslims as well: Say, O people of the book, come to a common word [of agreement] between you and us that we worship no one beside God ... (3: 64). The Qur'an further asserts that in the Gospel ... there is guidance and light (5: 44). Let therefore the people of the Gospel judge in accordance with what was revealed in it, the Qur'an enjoins (5: 47). The Qur'an further challenges Muhammad and the Jews who came to ask him to judge among them, How could they make you a judge over them when they have the Torah in which is the judgement of God? (5: 43).
If the Torah, the Gospel and the Qur'an are one in their message and purpose, they why are they so different in reality and why are the three communities of faith in such discord among themselves? These differences, the Qur'an asserts, are due to the fact that some of the Jews and Christians have willfully altered words from their rightful places (4: 46). This accusation of tahrif (altering or distorting) by the Jews and the Christians of their own sacred books has played an unfortunate role in Muslim-Jewish-Christian polemics. The problem of tahrif is a very complex one which cannot be discussed in this general essay. It must be observed, however, that the Qur'an seems to suggest that such alteration or distortion was more of the interpretation or meaning rather than the actual text of the Torah and Gospel. An example of this misinterpretation is the verses in both scriptures referring to the coming of Muhammad and which were given different interpretations by the scholars-priests and rabbis of the two communities. [16] Another and even more serious example of Christian misinterpretation of the message and personality of Christ is their assertion that Christ is God or the Son of God. [17]
All this notwithstanding, the Qur'an still leaves much room for dialogue and amity among the faithful of the three communities. It was unfortunately not the scriptures of the three communities that were called upon to judge and decide among their people; but rather political, economic, and military exigencies were to determine the relations among Muslims, Christians and Jews.
The Qur'an never criticized the faith of Christians and Jews, or Judaism and Christianity as such. Rather it always qualifies its statements with: Some among the people of the book . . . or a group of the people of the book ..., and so on. Later tradition could not be satisfied with such an open relationship. Thus tahrif was taken to mean an actual change of the text of the scriptures through interpolations and deletions. In an interesting, hadith the Prophet says: 'Do not believe the people of the book nor disbelieve them. Rather say, we believe in that which was sent down to us.' [18] This ambivalence towards the people of the book is even less apparent in the Qur'an. In several places the Qur'an invokes previous scriptures and their people to argue for its own claim to authenticity. Thus the Qur'an addresses Muhammad: If you are in doubt concerning that which we have sent down to you, then ask those who have been reading the book before you ... (10: 194). The Qur'an similarly enjoins the Muslims: Ask the people of remembrance (ahl al-dhikr) if you do not know (16: 43). The people of remembrance are the people of the scriptures which the Qur'an often designates as the Remembrance. [19]
Every religious tradition, or at least the three with which we are here concerned, must in the end see itself as in some way the last word of divine truth or revelation to humanity. Islam adopted an open and unique attitude to previous religious traditions and their revelations, an attitude made necessary by the Islamic view of history as revelation-history. Since revelation ceased with the Qur'an, and apostleship with Muhammad, Islam has seen itself as the final confirmation and fulfillment of all previous revelations. By dint of geographic and cultural proximity of the Muslim community to Christians and Jews, this openness and challenge had to be directed at the people of the book. Thus it was inevitable that conflict would arise. The Qur'an sees itself not only as dependent for its own claim to authenticity on the Torah and the Gospel, but also as 'confirming' the truth which they contain and superceding them. This view which the Qur'an holds of itself and the attitude it evinced within the Muslim community of Medina led to sharp and tragic conflict with the well-established Jewish community. This in turn resulted in open hostility on both sides.
The Qur'an exhibits greater hostility towards the Jews than towards the Christians but here again it may be argued that this hostility was directed towards the Jews of Medina with whom the Prophet and early Muslim community had many political and economic problems. The Qur'an admits the favour of God towards the children of Israel and their covenant with Him, but rejects the Jewish notion of chosenness and exclusivity. This problem, I believe, is older than Islam. It was quite prevalent in the earlier culture of the Syro-Aramaic Near East and is reflected even in the Gospel. [20]
The contrast between the Qur'anic treatment of the Jews and Christians may be best seen in a late verse revealed in the context of much Jewish-Muslim conflict in a still nascent and imperiled
Muslim community. The verse reads: You would find the greatest of hostility among men towards those who have faith to be Jews and those who have associated (other things with God); and you would tind the nearest of them in love towards those who have faith to be those who say, 'We are Christians.' This is because there are among them pastors and monks; nor do they act arrogantly (5: 82). But by the Jews, the Qur'an intended those of Medina, and by the Christians those of Abyssinia and their legendary king, al-Najashi (Nagus), who received Muslims well when they had to flee Mecca in the first Muslim migration. [21]
Every sacred book, be it the Qur'an, Torah or Gospel, is open to many kinds of interpretation in accordance with our increased knowledge of one another and the historical circumstances which we together share. The ancient biblical promise to the Jews of Zion has been interpreted both spiritually and politically. The political ramifications of that interpretation are still very much with us. Likewise, the Gospel parable of the king's wedding feast [22] gave St. Augustine scriptural authority to argue for the compulsion of the Donatist back to the Church even if coercion were necessary. Sufis have often interpreted the Qur'anic verses enjoining the faithful to strive in the way of God with the sword to mean striving against the evil in one's own heart and soul with the sword of truth. They found clear support in prophetic hadith for this view which called the jihad against the carnal soul 'the greater jihad.' The Qur'an also distinguishes between the jihad in the way of God and jihad in God, where God says: And those who strive in Us, We shall guide them to our ways (29:69). The ways of God are designated by another verse as the ways of peace (51:16).
The ancient divine promise of guidance in the face of evil and sin was made not only to Adam and his spouse but to all their progeny after them. Guidance in Islam is analogous to the Holy Spirit in Christianity. God will still guide those who seek peace to understand His revelations and learn from them. In our world of great possibilities for a better life of health and plenty or total devastation, we need to interpret our scriptures in ways that promote a meaningful dialogue which would lead to a true fellowship of faith. He has showed you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God? (Micah 6:8 (RSV)). You will know the truth and the truth will make you free (John 8:32). ... Guidance shall come from me to you, and whoever follows My guidance, no fear shall come upon them, nor will they grieve (2:38).
Notes:
[1] See 2: 30.
[2] See 16:68.
[3] See 36: 40.
[4] See Ayoub, The Qur'an and its Interpreters, 1, New York: SUNY Press, 1983, ad 2: 30-34.
[5] Sahih Muslim, 3rd ed.. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. 1398/1978. XVI, 210
[6] See Ayoub, op. cit., 1, ad 2:30-38.
[7] See the previous footnote.
[8] See also 7: 12.
[9] See 2:123.
[10] Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kulayni al-Razi, Al-Usul min al-kafi, 3rd ed., Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-lslamiyya. 1388, I, 174 6.
[11] For a useful summary of the doctrine of the imamate, see M. Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering in Islam: a Study of the Devotional Aspects of 'Ashura' in Twelver Shi'ism, The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1978, pp. 5348; and Henri Corbin, 'De la philosophie prophetique en Islam Shi'ite', Eranos Jarbuch, xxx (1962), 49-1 16
[12] See 82:18-1 9
[13] 3:67. On Abraham in the Islamic tradition see Kenneth Cragg, The Privilege of Man, London: University of London, Athlone Press, 1968, ch. 3; and Youakim Moubarac. Abraham dans le Coran, Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1958.
[14] A. Guillaume. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaqs Sirat Rasul Allah. 3rd ed.. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1970, p. 170.
[15] 'Imad al-Din Abu 'l-Fida' Isma'il b. Kathir, Al-sira al-nabawiya, Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifa, 1396/1971, I, 421.
[16] See Guillaume, op. cit., p. 103; and Ali b. Rabban al-Tabari, Al-din wa'l dawla, 3rd ed., Beirut: Dar al-Afaq al-Jadida, 1979. (The book has also been translated into English under the title Religion and the Empire.)
[17] See Q. 5:17, 73. and 116.
[18] Sahih al-Bukhari, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d., v, 150.
[19] See 15:9 and 21: 105
[20] See J. Spencer Trimingham, Christianity among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times, London: Longman, 1979, pp. 41 49. See also Matt 3: 9.
[21] See Guillaume. op. cit., pp. 146-50.
[22] See Luke 14:16-24
